There has always been a need for the development of better adhesives, particularly adhesives that are exposed to aqueous environments. For example, adhesives that can be administered to a subject have numerous medical applications, such as with, bone fractures which are a serious health concern in society today. In addition to the fracture itself, a number of additional health risks are associated with the fracture. Intra-articular fractures are bony injuries that extend into a joint surface and fragment the cartilage surface. Fractures of the cartilage surface often lead to debilitating posttraumatic arthritis. Currently, stainless steel and titanium implants are the primary methods of fixation, but their size and the drilling necessary to place them frequently interfere with the exact manipulation and reduction of smaller pieces of bone and cartilage.
In additional to medical applications, adhesives that can be used or exposed to aqueous environments can have several beneficial applications in non-medical applications as well. For example, an adhesive can be used to help restore marine ecosystems by adhering coral and other materials to existing reefs to enhance the growth and development of the reef. Described herein are adhesives that address these needs.